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[Montuno]

La Nuba: Poetic-musical splendor of Al-Andalus

WEDNESDAY, FEBRUARY 2, 2022

Poetic-musical splendor of Al-Andalus « MusicaAntigua.com
La Nuba: Poetic-musical splendor of Al-Andalus

Nuba Al Istiḥlāl

It appears that the Spanish Anthem was based in music composed in the Islamic Hispania and that the Hispano-muslim musician and philosopher Abû Bakr Muḥammad...

youtu.be

Andalusí music (also called Arabic-Hispanic), is a style of Arabic music, which occurred with its maximum splendor in Al-Andalus between the 9th and 15th centuries. It currently occurs in North Africa (Western Sahara, Morocco, Argelia, Túnez & Libia) and Spain.

“The Islamic culture that lived for more than seven centuries and left a great influence on the Iberian Peninsula, from the year 711 when the Arab presence began, until a century after 1492, the end of the last Nasrid kingdom of Granada.

Al-Andalus was the western frontier of Islam for centuries, which gave it a privileged place in the legends and myths of the relationship between Islam and medieval Christianity.

At the height of the Caliphate of Córdoba and the Taifa kingdoms, there was a great cultural influence both in Christian Spain and in France and Italy, through Muslim and Jewish musicians.

The poetic-musical flowering of Al-Andalus reaches its peak in the form of Nuba (Nawba).
Its creator was Ziryab, the most celebrated musician in the Arab West.

His name comes to mean "blackbird", a nickname that was given to him because of his dark color and the sweetness of his voice.

At the Baghdad court of Harum al-Rasid (786 – 809), he won favor with the caliph for his talent and virtuosity playing the lute.

His jealous teacher Al Musuli forced him to leave Persia, eventually settling after many adventures in the Córdoba of Abd al Rahman II (822 – 825).

There he founded a musical school creating the lute, which was later implanted both in Christian Spain and in North Africa, and forming the primitive structure of the Nuba (Nawba).

Nawba means "turn", music performed for a man in the form of a necklace, in which each bead is a song of a different size and shape. Thus, each Nawba is a group of songs that are linked to each other, in movements according to a rhythmic-metric structure, and that have the same 'color', which is their musical modality.

The number of songs is variable, being organized for each musical session. The measures or rhythmic movements are originally four: Basît, Qaym wa Nusf, Bitâyhî and Qudâmm.

The names of the Nuba correspond to the basic musical mode on which they are composed. These modes have a musical role, another psycho-somatic attributing influence on moods, and another cosmogonic being conducive to being performed at certain times of the day.

In the 13th century, with the conquest of Córdoba and Seville by Fernando III, king of Castilla y León; and that of Valencia by Jaime I of Aragon, began the emigration of Hispanic-Arabs to Granada and to different cities in North Africa.

This progressive exodus in the Christian reconquest, disrupted the musical schools of Al-Andalus, settling again according to the following scheme: Seville in Tunisia and Libya, Córdoba and Granada in Algeria (Oran, Algiers, …), and Valencia and Granada in Morocco (Fez, Tetouan, etc.).

While in their new settlements, these schools are enriched by becoming cultured music halls, or religious brotherhoods; in Christian Spain it continues to evolve, acquiring a popular character mixed with tradition”.- (Eduardo Paniagua)

ANDALUSI MUSIC – NUBA GARÎBAT AL-HUSEYN [QUDÂMM]- Moroccan tradition.
- Sugl “They reproached me for your love”
- Moaxaja “While I hid love”
Video:

Interpreter: CALAMUS.
Images: Mosque-Cathedral of Córdoba (Andalusia – Spain).
LYRICS: (Translation)

Sugl ["I was reproached for your love"]

I was reproached for your love this and that,
you of wonderful beauty, sun and moon.
My beloved, do not look for me because of my situation,
my state satisfies you in privacy and before people.

Moaxaja ["While I hid love"]

While I hid love,
today what I hid has been revealed.
I feel like my little heart was burned
and I've lost my mind.

Cry burning with passion:
My beloved! I consume myself
I have no choice in love,
no comfort in my censor.
See how pale I have become,
and it is not what I say
as seeing it with your own eyes.

The Nuba GARÎBAT AL-HUSEYN of the Moroccan tradition, contains 64 songs.

Its main themes are love, the pain of abandonment and wine, leaving open a certain mystical-Sufi understanding as a key to interpretation.

According to the Al-Haik manuscript, a compilation made around the year 1800 of the songs of eleven Nawbas, the mode of this Nuba was composed by a slave owned by the sultan who invented the al-Huseyn mode, called al-Gariba (the foreign ), for being away from his family and his country.

The sultan was in love with her, and therefore the mode was called Garîbat al-Husayn.

The manuscript also says that it is to be played at the waking dawn, and that its melody and tone leave imprints of sweetness and compassion on the listeners' hearts, and let tears run in their eyes.

Another video:

ON A WONDERFUL NIGHT (Moaxaja) – NUBA GARÎBAT AL-HUSEYN [Bitâyhî].
Interpreter: CALAMUS.
LYRICS: (Translation)

On a wonderful night,
how pleasant!,
the spy was absent,
God grant that he does not return!
It is a full moon that has awakened my passion.
A passionate love ends
for a finished lover.

La Nuba: Esplendor poético-musical de Al-Ándalus - MusicaAntigua.com

La música andalusí (también llamada arábigo-andaluza), es un estilo de música árabe, que se dió en Al-Ándalus entre los siglos IX y XV. En la actualidad se da en el norte de África. "La cultura islámica que vivió más de siete siglos y dejó un gran influjo en la península ibérica, desde el año 711

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[Montuno]

(1)

In the 10th millennium BC. C. (between 9600 and 8200 BCE), before thesedentarization.

Göbekli Tepe: the oldest temple in the world and the birth of the religion.

We believed that agriculture had given rise to cities and, later, to writing, art and religion.

Now the world's oldest temple suggests that awareness of the sacred may have ignited the spark of civilization.

updated to October 12, 2020 7:20 PM ·


every once in a while, high on a remote hill in southern Turkey , the awakening of civilization is staged. The actors are legions of tourists, usually Turkish, sometimes European, arriving in white air-conditioned coaches with televisions, stumbling up the uneven surface of the winding road and parking at the stone gate like battleships in a port. . Visitors get out, with their water bottles and music players, and the guides shout instructions and explanations at them. Paying no attention to them, the tourists climb the hill. When they reach the top, they are speechless with amazement

Before them are dozens of huge stone columns arranged in a series of circles, stacked on top of each other. The place, called Göbekli Tepe, is vaguely reminiscent of Stonehenge , but it is much older and is not made of crude blocks but of finely carved limestone pillars adorned with bas-reliefs of animals: a parade of gazelles, snakes, foxes, scorpions and ferocious boars. The complex was built about 11,600 years ago, seven millennia before the Great Pyramid of Cheops, and contains the oldest temple known to date.In fact, Göbekli Tepe is the oldest known example of monumental architecture, the first structure erected by humans with a size and complexity greater than that of a hut. As far as we know, when these columns were erected there was no other construction of comparable size in the world.

Pillars of the Göbekli Tepe temple
The pillars of the Göbekli Tepe temple in southern Turkey, 11,600 years old and up to 5.5 meters high, could represent a group of priests dancing. Observe, in the figure in the foreground, the hands above the belt that holds the loincloth.

Photo: Vincent J. Musi


When Göbekli Tepe was built, much of humanity was organized into small nomadic bands that lived by gathering plants and hunting wild animals. To build the temple, it was probably necessary to gather in one place more people than had ever been gathered before. Amazingly, the builders managed to extract, carve and transport 16-ton stones for hundreds of meters, although they did not know the wheel or pack animals.The pilgrims who flocked to Göbekli Tepe lived in a world without writing, metals, or pottery. To those who approached the temple up the slope, the pillars must have seemed like petrified giants, covered with carved animals that trembled in the light of the flames, emissaries from a spiritual world that the human mind was only just beginning to glimpse.

Archaeologists are still excavating at Göbekli Tepe and have not yet agreed on its meaning. But what they do know is that the site is the most remarkable in a series of unexpected finds that have challenged previous ideas about the remote past of our species . Barely 20 years ago, most researchers believed they knew the time, place, and approximate sequence of the Neolithic revolution, the crucial transition that led to the birth of agriculture, which was decisive for Homo sapiensleft behind the scattered groups of hunter-gatherers to begin to form agricultural villages and, from there, technologically advanced societies with great temples, towers, kings and priests who governed the work of their subjects and recorded their exploits in writing. But in recent years, new discoveries, notably Göbekli Tepe, have forced archaeologists to rethink their views.

Society and its art :
The elaborate bas-reliefs with vultures, scorpions and other creatures found on the T-pillars must have been the work of skilled craftsmen, evidence that hunter-gatherers were evolving towards more complex social structures,

Photo: Vincent J. Musi


At first, the Neolithic revolution was seen as a unique event that occurred in a single place, Mesopotamia, between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers (in what is now southern Iraq), which later spread to India, Europe, and the world. rest of the world. Most archaeologists believed that this sudden flourishing of civilization had been driven largely by climatic changes: a gradual warming at the end of the last ice age that allowed some peoples to start growing plants and herding animals. Recent research suggests that the " revolution " was in fact the work of many hands, acting over a very wide area and over thousands of years.Also, your engine may not have been the environment but something else entirely.

After a moment of silence, the stunned tourists who arrive at the site begin to take photos with their cameras and mobile phones. Eleven millennia ago, nobody had digital equipment to capture images, of course, but things have changed less than one might suppose. Most of the great religious centers of the world, those of the past and those that exist today, are the goal of the pilgrims. Just think of the Vatican, Mecca, Jerusalem, or Bodh Gaya (where the Buddha gained enlightenment). They are monumental places for spiritual travelers, who often travel great distances to be moved and marveled at their greatness. Göbekli Tepe is perhaps the first of all such pilgrimage sites.What it suggests, at least to archaeologists working there, is that the human sense of the sacred, and perhaps also the human taste for drama, may have been the engine of civilization...

 

[Montuno]

(2)

In the 10th millennium BC. C. (between 9600 and 8200 BCE), before thesedentarization.

Göbekli Tepe: the oldest temple in the world and the birth of the religion.

We believed that agriculture had given rise to cities and, later, to writing, art and religion.

Now the world's oldest temple suggests that awareness of the sacred may have ignited the spark of civilization.


a sacred bestiary :
Traces of what was perhaps the world's first organized religion are scattered among a number of Neolithic sites in southern Turkey, northern Syria and Iraq. The most frequent icons were the dangerous beasts that stalked the settlements that the humans had just created, such as wild boars. The one that appears in the image comes from Göbekli Tepe.

Piece photographed in the museum of Şanliurfa, Turkey.

Photo: Vincent J. Musi

Within minutes of arriving, he realized that he was in a place where dozens or even hundreds of people had worked several millennia ago.

Klaus Schmidt knew almost immediately that he was going to put in many hours of work at Göbekli Tepe. Now a researcher at the German Archaeological Institute (DAI), Schmidt had spent the fall of 1994 touring southeastern Turkey. After several years of working on a site, he was looking for another place to dig. The largest city in the area is Şanlıurfa. Compared to young cities like London, Şanlıurfa is incredibly old; in fact, it is the place where the prophet Abraham is believed to have been born. Schmidt had come to the city to locate a site that would give him a better understanding of the Neolithic, a place by which even Şanlıurfa looked like a teenager. The landscape undulates north of Şanlıurfa to form the first foothills of the mountains that run through southern Turkey, where the Tigris and Euphrates rivers rise. 14 kilometers from the city rises a long ridge with a rounded top, which the locals call Göbekli Tepe, that is to say, “ paunchy mountain ”.

In the 1960s, archaeologists from the University of Chicago studied the region and concluded that Göbekli Tepe was of no interest. They observed obvious signs of human intervention on the top of the mount, but attributed them to the existence of a border military post from Byzantine times. They found scattered fragments of limestone, which they interpreted as tombstones. Schmidt had read the Chicago researchers' brief description of the site and decided to go see it for himself. On the ground he saw flint chips, lots of them . Within minutes of arriving, Schmidt himself recalls, he realized that he was in a place where dozens or even hundreds of people had worked several millennia ago.The limestone slabs were not Byzantine tombs but something much older. The following year he began to work in collaboration with the DAI and the Şanlıurfa Museum .

Gokbeli Tepe
A pillar with the stylized figure of a fox stands tall under the starry night. To protect the fragile bas-reliefs, it is planned to roof the site throughout this year. Pondering under the stars on the mysteries of this ancient temple will soon be a thing of the past.

Photo: Vincent J. Musi

A few centimeters below the surface the team found a carefully carved stone. This was followed by another, and another, until a circle of standing pillars was revealed. Over the months and years, Schmidt's team, made up of German and Turkish graduate students and more than fifty local residents, found a second stone circle, then a third, and then several more. In 2003, geomagnetic surveys revealed the existence of at least 20 circles distributed disorderly underground, the stone blocks stacked on top of each other. The pillars were large (the tallest were 5.4 meters high and weighed about 16 tons) and presented on the surface a whole gallery of bas-reliefs of animals in different styles, some crude and others, the least, much more refined. and with a clear symbolic character. Other parts of the hill were littered with ancient flint-carved tools, the largest collection Schmidt had ever seen: a veritable storehouse of Neolithic knives, adzes, and projectile points. The stone had to be transported from nearby valleys. “ There were more pieces of flint here, in an area of one or two square meters ,” says Schmidt.than those found by many archaeologists in entire sites.”


ethereal worlds :
At the base of one of the pillar circles at Göbekli Tepe are the remains of a gate, perhaps a symbolic entrance to a supernatural world apparently symbolized by the animals that abound throughout the site. Many of the animals were carnivorous, including the fox depicted on the pillar in the background of the image.

Photo: Vincent J. Musi

The circles present a common design. They are all made of limestone pillars in the shape of a huge capital letter T. They look like knives, five times as wide as they are deep, and stand an arm's length apart, interconnected by low stone walls. In the center of each circle are two taller pillars, the bases of which the builders sharpened so that they could be driven into shallow slots in the ground. I asked the German architect and civil engineer Eduard Knoll , Schmidt's collaborator in the site's conservation work, if the anchoring system for those central pillars was well designed. He told me no. « They had not yet mastered engineering.» Knoll thinks the columns may have been propped up, perhaps with wooden posts.

The puzzles accumulated as the excavation progressed.

According to Schmidt, the T-pillars are stylized human figures, as seems to be confirmed by the sculpted arms that start from the “ shoulders ” of some of them, with their hands directed towards the loincloth-covered belly. Everyone faces the center of the circle, " like at a meeting or a dance ," says Schmidt, perhaps representing some religious ritual. As for the animal figures that run and jump on the stones, she points out that they are mostly dangerous beasts: poisonous scorpions, wild boars in full attack or ferocious lions. The human figures represented by the pillars could be protected by these animals, to which they could attribute a totemic character.

The birth of the gods.
This life-size sculpture, dating to at least 8,000 BC, was discovered in southeastern Turkey, 14 kilometers from Göbekli Tepe, the oldest temple in the world. When hunter-gatherer groups evolved into more complex social systems, the representation of human beings –or divinities– made their appearance.

Photo: Vincent J. Musi

The puzzles accumulated as the excavation progressed. For reasons still unknown, it seems that the circles of Göbekli Tepe lost their power, or at least their magical qualities, after a certain time. After a few decades, the local people would bury the columns and erect new ones, which formed a smaller circle within the old one. Sometimes they built a third ring of stones after a while. The builders then filled the entire structure with rubble and erected a new circle in the vicinity of the previous one. This process may have been repeated many times over the centuries.

Surprisingly, the construction techniques used at Göbekli Tepe were getting worse. The first circles are the largest and the most technically and artistically complex...

 

[Montuno]

(3 )

In the 10th millennium BC. (between 9600 and 8200 BCE), before thesedentarization.

Göbekli Tepe: the oldest temple in the world and the birth of the religion.

We believed that agriculture had given rise to cities and, later, to writing, art and religion.

Now the world's oldest temple suggests that awareness of the sacred may have ignited the spark of civilization.

Surprisingly, the construction techniques used at Göbekli Tepe were getting worse. The first circles are the largest and the most technically and artistically complex . Over time the pillars became smaller and simpler, anchoring themselves to the ground with less skill. It seems that the activity finally ceased completely around 8200 BC Göbekli Tepe collapsed and did not rise again.

As important is what the researchers have found as what they have not found: no sign of settlement. It must have taken hundreds of people to carve and erect the pillars, but there was no water on the spot. The nearest stream was about five kilometers away. The workers must have needed a place to live, but the excavations have not brought to light the slightest sign of walls, fires or houses, nor any type of structure that Schmidt has interpreted as domestic. They also had to eat, but there is no indication of agriculture .

The beginnings of agriculture
In southeastern Turkey there are farmers who still harvest wheat with a sickle. Einkorn wheat was domesticated for the first time in this region, perhaps with the aim of feeding all the pilgrims who gathered at Göbekli Tepe to carry out religious rituals.

Photo: Vincent J. Musi

Schmidt has also not found remains of kitchens, or fires where cooking was done. It was a purely ceremonial center. If anyone ever lived there, it must have been the temple staff. Judging by the thousands of gazelle and aurochs bones that have been found, the workers must have fed on consignments of game meat, sent regularly from distant places. To successfully channel all this complex effort, organizers and supervisors must have been necessary, but so far no signs of a social hierarchy have been observed : no areas reserved for the richest have been discovered, no tombs full of funerary goods typical of an elite, no sign that the diet of some was better than that of others.

Göbekli Tepe was like finding out that someone had built a Boeing 747 with a Swiss Army knife.

" They were foragers ," says Schmidt, referring to people who gathered plants and hunted wild animals. Our image of foraging villages has always been one of small, mobile groups, made up of a few dozen individuals. We believed that they could not build large permanent structures, because they had to constantly move for their resources. We thought that they couldn't maintain separate castes of priests and artisans, because they couldn't transport the extra supplies needed for each other. But here we have Göbekli Tepe, where they did."

Karaca Dag
This family of herders has been herding cattle on the northern edge of the Fertile Crescent for a century. The field where the animals graze, on the slopes of Karaca Dağ, is less than 100 kilometers from Göbekli Tepe, where geneticists believe a variety of today's wheat was first domesticated. Sheep and goats were also domesticated in this region.

Photo: Vincent J. Musi

Finding out that hunter-gatherers had built Göbekli Tepe was like finding out that someone had built a Boeing 747 with a Swiss Army knife. Paradoxically, Göbekli Tepe is presented as both a herald of the civilized world to come and the last symbol of a nomadic past about to disappear. The feat was amazing, but it's hard to understand how it was done or what it meant. “ In about 10 or 15 years ,” says Schmidt, “ Göbekli Tepe will be more famous than Stonehenge. That's right."

Over Göbekli Tepe hovers the spirit of V. Gordon Childe. An Australian living in Britain, Childe was an expansive and passionate man, a staunch Marxist who used to wear golf trousers and a bow tie. He was also one of the most influential archaeologists of the last century. Thanks to his great capacity for synthesis, he interrelated the unconnected data of his colleagues, proposing new methods of interpreting prehistory based on historical materialism. He also proposed new concepts, the most famous of them, coined in the 1920s, that of « Neolithic revolution ». From his point of view, the Neolithic revolution was a vitally important event: " the greatest in the history of mankind, after the dominion of fire."

Today, Gordon Childe's thinking could be summed up more or less like this: Homo sapiens appeared on the scene around 200,000 years ago. During the millennia that followed there was generally little change and the species remained organized in small groups of nomadic foragers. Then the Neolithic revolution took place, which according to Childe represented " a radical change, charged with revolutionary consequences for the whole of the species ".». In a sudden flash of inspiration, part of humanity left behind foraging and embraced agriculture. This fact, in Childe's opinion, brought with it new transformations. To take care of the fields, our ancestors had to stop moving and settled in permanent villages, where they developed new tools and invented ceramics.

Of all the aspects of the revolution, agriculture was the most important. For thousands of years, men and women armed with stone tools had roamed the fields in search of ears of wild grasses, which they cut and took home. Although it is possible that those groups tended and protected the fields where these spikes grew, the plants remained wild. Wild wheat and barley, unlike domestic varieties, produce seeds that fall from the plant as soon as they are ripe, making it nearly impossible to harvest the grain at its optimum ripeness.

Genetically speaking, true cereal agriculture began only when man began planting vast new areas with mutated varieties, which did not disperse mature seeds . Thus appeared fields of domestic wheat and barley, which, so to speak, "waited" for the farmers to harvest the grain.

limestone bowl
In a limestone bowl found at Nevalı Çori, a settlement founded a thousand years after Göbekli Tepe, two figures dance with an animal. Animals, perhaps spirit guides, were important symbols at the time when man began to domesticate sheep and goats.

Photo: Vincent J. Musi

Instead of scouring the environment for food, our ancestors were now able to produce everything they needed where they needed it, allowing them to live together in larger groups. The population increased. "Only after the revolution, but immediately ," Childe wrote, "did our species begin to multiply with real rapidity." In these suddenly larger societies, it was easier to exchange ideas, and technological and social innovations began to follow each other at a rapid pace. Religion and art flourished , distinctive signs of civilization.

Childe, like most scholars today, believed that the revolution first occurred in the Fertile Crescent, the arc of territory that curves northeast from Gaza to southern Turkey and continues southeast as far as Turkey. present day Iraq . Bounded to the south by the Syrian desert and to the north by the mountains of Turkey, it is a strip of temperate climate between inhospitable environments. Its southern end is the confluence of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, in southern Iraq, the place where the kingdom of Sumer flourished, around 4000 BC.

In Childe's time, most researchers considered Sumer to represent the beginning of civilization. Archaeologist Samuel Noah Kramer picked up this argument in the 1950s in his work History Begins in Sumer. But even before the book was finished, the hypothesis was already being challenged by new finds at the other end of the Fertile Crescent, the western one. There, in the Mediterranean Levant (an area that today encompasses Israel, the Palestinian territories, Lebanon, Jordan, and western Syria), archaeologists had discovered settlements dating back to 13,000 BC. Those towns or villages, known as Natufians(named after the place where the first was found), spread throughout the Levant towards the end of the last ice age, during a period when the region's climate became relatively hot and humid.

viper gods
Another common icon of early religions was the snake. The one in the photo was found on the back of a human head in Nevalı Çori.

Photo: Vincent J. Musi

...

 

[Montuno]

(4)

In the 10th millennium BC. (between 9600 and 8200 BCE), before thesedentarization.

Göbekli Tepe: the oldest temple in the world and the birth of the religion.

We believed that agriculture had given rise to cities and, later, to writing, art and religion.

Now the world's oldest temple suggests that awareness of the sacred may have ignited the spark of civilization.


The discovery of the Natufian culture was the first objection to Childe's Neolithic revolution. For the archaeologist, agriculture had been the spark that allowed permanent settlements and ignited the flame of civilization. However, although the Natufians lived in stable villages of several hundred people, they were foragers, not farmers, hunting gazelles and gathering wild rye, barley, and wheat. " It was a strong signal that we needed to revise our ideas," says Ofer Bar-Yosef, an archaeologist at Harvard.

The Natufian villages entered a difficult time around 10,800 BC, when temperatures in the region suffered a sharp drop of around 7°C: a miniglaciation that lasted 1,200 years and created much drier conditions throughout the Fertile Crescent. With diminishing animal habitat and shrinking grain fields, several villages suddenly became too crowded for local food resources. Many of its inhabitants returned to nomadic foraging.

Some settlements tried to adapt to a more arid environment. Abu Hureyra, in present-day northern Syria, apparently attempted to cultivate rye, perhaps by replanting the harvested grains. In 2000, after examining rye grains from the site, Gordon Hillman of University College London and Andrew Moore of the Rochester Institute of Technology concluded that some were larger than their wild counterparts, which could be an indication of domestication. since the crop improves the qualities of the grain, such as the size of the fruit and the seeds. Bar-Yosef and other researchers became convinced that nearby places, such as Mureybet or Tell Qaramel , also had agricultural societies.

a difficult interpretation
Discovered in the summer of 2010, this 11,600-year-old gateway to the temple is surrounded by beasts carved into the stone. Among them, a snake, an aurochs (a kind of wild bull), a wild boar and a predatory animal still unidentified. We know very little about these structures.

Photo: Vincent J. Musi

If these archaeologists are correct, those protocities offer a new explanation for the beginning of complex human societies. Childe believed that agriculture came first, seen as the innovation that enabled man to seize the opportunity of a new and rich environment to extend his dominion over nature. The Natufian sites of the Mediterranean Levant, on the other hand, suggest that settlements came first and that agriculture came later, as the result of a crisis. Faced with an increasingly cold and dry climate, and a growing population, the inhabitants of the few fertile areas that remained thought, according to Bar-Yosef: «If we move, others will come to take advantage of our resources. The best thing to survive is to stay where we are and exploit our territory ». Then agriculture arose.

The idea that the Neolithic revolution was driven by climate change was widely echoed in the 1990s, a time when concern was growing about the effects of current global warming. But critics argued that the evidence was inconclusive, not least because Abu Hureyra, Mureybet and many other sites in northern Syria had been flooded by dam construction before they could be fully excavated. " We had a whole theory about the origin of human culture based, roughly speaking, on just half a dozen unusually large seeds, " says George Willcox , a specialist in ancient cereals at the National Center for Scientific Research in France.–. Isn't it more likely that the grains swelled when burned or that someone in Abu Hureyra found an unusual type of wild rye?

Organized religion arose with the need for a shared idea that would unite larger and more diversified groups of people.

As the debate about the Natufians raged, Schmidt was hard at work at Göbekli Tepe. And what he found forces researchers once again to rethink his ideas.

Anthropologists have assumed that organized religion arose as a means of alleviating the tensions that inevitably had to arise when hunter-gatherers settled down as farmers and formed large societies. Compared to a nomadic band, the village had more complex and longer-term goals, for example, storing grain and maintaining permanent homes. To fulfill its objectives, it was convenient that the members of the town were involved in collective ends.

 

[Montuno]

(5 & end)

In the 10th millennium BC. (between 9600 and 8200 BCE), before thesedentarization.

Göbekli Tepe: the oldest temple in the world and the birth of the religion.

We believed that agriculture had given rise to cities and, later, to writing, art and religion.

Now the world's oldest temple suggests that awareness of the sacred may have ignited the spark of civilization.


incomplete works
Archaeologists have found a half-hewn pillar on one of the hills near Göbekli Tepe, visible in the background.

Photo: Vincent J. Musi

Although primitive religious practices (burying the dead, executing cave paintings, and carving statuettes) had emerged tens of thousands of years earlier, organized religion only began, according to this view, when a common vision of celestial order was necessary. an idea shared by all that would unite these new larger and more diversified groups. It is also possible that religion helped justify the established social hierarchy in a more complex society. Those who rose to power presented themselves as having a special connection with the gods. Communities of the faithful, united by a common vision of the world and their place in it, were more cohesive than a mere quarrelsome group of individuals.

In Schmidt's view, Göbekli Tepe represents a reversal of that landscape. The construction of a huge temple by a group of foragers indicates that organized religion may have arisen before agriculture and other aspects of civilization, and suggests that the human impulse to congregate for the practice of sacred rituals arose when the being The human ceased to see itself as part of the natural world and began to try to dominate it. When foragers began to settle in villages, they drew a dividing line between the human realm (a fixed group of dwellings with hundreds of inhabitants) and the dangerous world of ferocious beasts beyond their homes.

For the French archaeologist Jacques Cauvin , this change in consciousness was a " revolution of symbols ," a conceptual transformation that allowed humanity to imagine that gods existed on a plane other than the physical world. For Schmidt, Göbekli Tepe confirms Cauvin's theory: «The animals were guardians of the spiritual world. The reliefs of the T-shaped pillars illustrate that other world».


a song to the dead
Vulture figures, like the one in this sculpture, have been found at Göbekli Tepe. Traditionally, birds have been associated with death, which leads one to think that Göbekli Tepe could have been a place for the celebration of rituals related to the spiritual power of dead ancestors.

Photo: Vincent J. Musi

Schmidt thinks that foragers living within a 100-mile radius of Göbekli Tepe may have erected the temple as a sacred place, where they gathered and perhaps brought offerings and tributes to the priests and artisans. It must have been necessary to establish some kind of social organization, not only to build it but also to manage the crowds it attracted. Watching it, it is easy to imagine singing and drumming, and the animals on the columns moving in the flickering light of the torches. Surely there were feasts. Schmidt has found stone basins that may have been used for beer. The temple was a spiritual center, a stage for ritual.

Schmidt believes that, over time, the need to provide enough food for those who worked at Göbekli Tepe and those who gathered there for religious ceremonies may have led to the intensive cultivation of wild grains and the creation of some of the first domestic varieties. In fact, scientists believe that one of the centers where agriculture arose was in southern Turkey, within walking distance of Göbekli Tepe, exactly around the time the temple reached its height. Today, the most direct wild ancestors of cultivated einkorn wheat are found on the slopes of Mount Karaca Da, just 60 miles northeast of Göbekli Tepe.In other words, the adoption of agriculture could have been the result of a deep need in the human psyche, an appetite that even today drives people to travel the world in a spiritual search.

Perhaps there was not a single road to civilization, but several, leading to the same destination by different routes.

Some of the earliest evidence of plant domestication is found in Nevalı Çori, a settlement in the mountains just 30 kilometers from Göbekli Tepe. Like this one, it also arose after the miniglaciation, a time known to archaeologists as the pre- ceramic Neolithic. The recent construction of a dam that provides irrigation water and electricity to the region has flooded the site. But before the water prevented the investigation, archaeologists found in Nevalı Çori T-shaped pillars with images of animals very similar to those that Schmidt would later discover in Göbekli Tepe. Similar columns and images have been found at pre-ceramic Neolithic sites as far as 160 kilometers from Göbekli Tepe. According to Schmidt, the images of these sites are proof of a common religion that was practiced around Göbekli Tepe and that was perhaps the first truly great religious denomination in the world...

Naturally, some of his colleagues disagree with his ideas. The lack of evidence of dwellings, for example, does not prove that no one lived at Göbekli Tepe. On the other hand, archaeologists studying the origins of civilization in the Fertile Crescent are increasingly suspicious of attempts to find a single trigger that applies to all cases. In a certain place, that factor could be agriculture; in another, art and religion, and in another, demographic pressure or social organization and hierarchy. In the end they all reached the same point. Perhaps there was not a single road to civilization, but several, leading to the same destination by different routes.

This summer Schmidt will be in his seventeenth year at the site. The annals of archeology are full of scientists who, by acting rashly, scuppered important finds and caused some knowledge to be lost forever. Schmidt is determined not to add his name to the list. Today less than a tenth of a site that occupies nine hectares is excavated.

Schmidt believes that future research at Göbekli Tepe could change his current ideas about the site. Not even its antiquity is known with certainty; Schmidt is not sure that he has reached the deepest layer. " For every puzzle we solve, new mysteries appear," he says. Still, he has drawn some conclusions. “ Twenty years ago, everyone believed that civilization had been driven by ecological causes ,” he says. I think we are now seeing that civilization is a product of the human mind."

Göbekli Tepe: el templo más antiguo del mundo y el nacimiento de la religión

La primera estructura monumental levantada por el homo sapiens, muy lejos de Mesopotamia, desafía todas las certezas que creíamos tener sobre el nacimiento de la civilización.

historia.nationalgeographic.com.es

 

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Göbekli Tepe - Wikipedia

en.m.wikipedia.org

Summarizing:

Göbekli Tepe is more than 7000 years (4-5 times) older than the BEGINNING of the megalithic erection of Stonehenge (UK) and the ENDING of the Great Pyramid of Giza-Keops-Jufu (Egypt), or 6000 years older than the BEGINNING of settlement and construction of the first semi-subteranean habitational structures in Moroccan is Bajos-Jaén (Spain), one of the oldest human settlements with constructions discovered until now in Iberian Peninsula... .

 

[Montuno]

(1)- I leave you now a news about an archaeological find in my area, related to two different wars separated by more than a millennium :

The tomb of a prince and 24 Iberian warrior aristocrats found in Alarcos (Ciudad Real)

The first one would be the Invasion of Carthage to the Iberian Spain, and the Battle of Helike, where the king of Oretania (the Iberian kingdom where my mountain would be then) achieved the Carthaginian defeat and the death of Almicar Barca (father of Hannibal, to whom Oretania posed a challenge that he did not think to find more than facing the other contemporary superpower of the Mediterranean, Rome... But just as the Spanish Civil War was to be the rehearsal and prelude to the Second World War, so too was the Spanish Civil War the prelude to the Second World War, this other war was the prelude yo the Second Púnic War:

(Wikipedia

The Battle of Helike or Battle of Ilice was a military confrontation that occurred during the Carthaginian conquest of the Iberian Peninsula . It took place in the year 228 a. C. The location of the exact place where the action took place is controversial, but it is known that it was in the surroundings of Elche (Valencian Community). In the course of the action, the Iberian troops were victorious and the Carthaginian general Amílcar Barca died during the battle in uncertain circumstances, but according to legend, an association of peoples defeated Amilcar's army by releasing bulls with burning branches on their heads. Amilcar is believed to have died from wounds sustained in that battle. [SUP][1 ] [/SUP][SUP][ 2[/SUP] ]

Part of the Carthaginian conquest of Hispania

228 BC c.

Helike (disputed location)

38°22′52″N 1°16′34″W / 38.381084 , -1.276081

Iberian victory

carthage Oretanos Contestanos Olcades Vetones

Hamilcar Barca † Orison , king of the Oretani

unknown unknown

[ edit data at Wikidata ]

DevelopingEditThe Carthaginian forces besieged the city of Helike, to whose aid Orison , king of the Oretani , came along with troops from other allied peoples. It is not known with certainty how the events unfolded, according to some versions Orison initially deceived the Carthaginians into believing that he came as his ally. When the confrontation began, he launched burning carts pulled by oxen against the enemy vanguard, which managed to break the Carthaginian lines and facilitated the victory of his troops.


...The other war, more than a millennium later, is that of the Kingdom of Castile against the Empire of the Almohad Caliphate, and specifically the Almohad victory at the Battle of Alarcos:

 

[Montuno]

(2)- I leave you now a news about an archaeological find in my area, related to two different wars separated by more than a millennium :

The tomb of a prince and 24 Iberian warrior aristocrats found in Alarcos (Ciudad Real)

(Wikipedia again

Battle of Alarcos

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Learn moreThis article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. (July 2020)

Battle of Alarcos (July 18, 1195),[SUP][4][/SUP] was a battle between the Almohads led by Abu Yusuf Ya'qub al-Mansur and King Alfonso VIII of Castile.[SUP][5][/SUP] It resulted in the defeat of the Castilian forces and their subsequent retreat to Toledo, whereas the Almohads reconquered Trujillo, Montánchez, and Talavera.[SUP][4][/SUP]

Part of the Reconquista
July 18, 1195 Alarcos, Ciudad Real province 38°57′10″N 4°0′0″W Decisive Almohad victory[SUP][1][/SUP]
Kingdom of Castile Order of Santiago Order of St. Benedict	Almohad Caliphate
Alfonso VIII of Castile Diego López de Haro	Abu Yusuf Ya'qub al-Mansur Pedro Fernández de Castro
Order of Évora Order of Santiago Undetermined ~ 10,000 knights in heavy armor [SUP][note 1][/SUP] Modern estimate: More than 25,000 [SUP][2][/SUP]	Marinid volunteers Zenata Archers Hintata Andalusian forces undetermined Modern estimate: 20,000-30,000 [SUP][3][/SUP]
significant, undetermined [SUP][note 2][/SUP]	undetermined

Battle location.BackgroundEditIn 1189 the Almohad caliph Yaqub al-Mansur returned from Marrakesh to fight the Portuguese who, with the help of a Christian alliance, had taken over Silves. He successfully recaptured the city and went back to his capital.

An armistice between the Almohads and the Christian kings of Castile and León ensued. At the expiration of the truce, and having received news that Yaqub was gravely ill in Marrakesh and that his brother Abu Yahya, the governor of Al-Andalus, had crossed the Mediterranean to declare himself king and take over Marrakesh, Alfonso VIII of Castile decided to attack the region of Seville in 1194.[SUP][6][/SUP] A strong host under the archbishop of Toledo (Martín López de Pisuerga), which included the military Order of Calatrava, ransacked the province. Having successfully crushed his brother's ambitions, Yaqub al-Mansur was left with no choice other than to lead an expedition against the Christians, who were now threatening the northern province of his empire.[SUP][6][/SUP]

On the first day of June, 1195, he landed at Tarifa. Passing through the province of Seville, the main Almohad army reached Cordova on June 30, reinforced by the few troops raised by the local governors and by a Christian cavalry contingent under Pedro Fernández de Castro, who held a personal feud against the Castilian king. On July 4 Ya'qub moved out of Cordova; his army crossed the pass of Muradal (Despeñaperros) and advanced through the plain of Salvatierra. A cavalry detachment of the Order of Calatrava, plus some knights from nearby castles, tried to gather news about the Almohad strength and its heading; they were surrounded by Muslim scouts and almost massacred,[SUP][citation needed][/SUP] but managed to provide information to the Castilian king.

 

[Montuno]

(3)- I leave you now a news about an archaeological find in my area, related to two different wars separated by more than a millennium :

The tomb of a prince and 24 Iberian warrior aristocrats found in Alarcos (Ciudad Real)

Alfonso gathered his forces at Toledo and marched down to Alarcos (al-Arak, in Arabic), near the Guadiana River, a place which marked the Southern limit of his kingdom and where a fortress was under construction. He intended on barring the access to the rich Tagus valley, and did not wait for the reinforcements the Kings Alfonso IX of León and Sancho VII of Navarre were sending.[SUP][5][/SUP] When on July 16 the Almohad host came in view, Yaqub al-Mansur did not accept battle on this day or the day after, preferring to give rest to his forces; but early the day after that, Wednesday, July 18, the Almohad army formed for battle around a small hill called La Cabeza, two bow-shots from Alarcos.


BattleEditYusuf Ya'qub al-Mansur gave to his vizier, Abu Yahya ibn Abi Hafs, command of a very strong vanguard: on the first line the Bani Marin volunteers under Abu Jalil Mahyu ibn Abi Bakr, with a big body of archers and the Zenata Tribe; behind them, on the hill itself, the vizier with the Amir's banner and his personal guard, from the Hintata tribe; to the left the Arab host under Yarmun ibn Riyah; and to the right, the al-Andalus forces under the popular Caid Ibn Sanadid. Yusuf Ya'qub al-Mansur himself held command of the rearguard, which comprised the best Almohad forces commanded by Yabir ibn Yusuf, Abd al-Qawi, Tayliyun, Muhammad ibn Munqafad, and Abu Jazir Yajluf al-Awrabi and the black guard (of black Africans). It was a formidable army, whose strength Alfonso had badly underestimated.

The Castilian king put most of his heavy cavalry in a compact body, about 8,000 strong, and gave its command to Diego López de Haro, lord of Vizcaya. The king himself would follow with the infantry and the Military Orders.

 

[Montuno]

(4)- I leave you now a news about an archaeological find in my area, related to two different wars separated by more than a millennium :

The tomb of a prince and 24 Iberian warrior aristocrats found in Alarcos (Ciudad Real)

The Christian cavalry charge was somewhat disordered. The knights crashed against the Zanatas and Bani Marin and dispersed them; lured by the Amir's standard, they charged uphill: Vizier Abu Yahya was killed,[SUP][7][/SUP] and the Hintata fell almost to a man trying to protect themselves. Most of the knights turned to their left and after a fierce struggle they routed the al-Andalus forces of Ibn Sanadid. Three hours had passed; just afternoon, in the intense heat, the fatigue and the missiles which kept falling on them took their toll of armoured knights. The Arab right under Yarmun had been enveloping the Castilian flank and rear; at this point the best of the Almohad forces attacked, with the sultan himself clearly visible in the front ranks; and finally the knights were almost completely surrounded.

Alfonso advanced with all his remaining forces into the melee, only to find himself assaulted from all sides and under a rain of arrows. For some time he fought hand-to-hand, until removed from the action, almost by force, by his bodyguard; they fled towards Toledo. The Castilian infantry was destroyed, together with most of the Orders which had supported them; the Lord of Vizcaya tried to force his way through the ring of enemy forces, but finally had to seek refuge in the unfinished fortress of Alarcos with just a fraction of his knights. The castle was surrounded with some 3,000 people trapped inside, half of them women and children. The king's enemy, Pedro Fernández de Castro, who had taken little part in the action, was sent by the Amir to negotiate the surrender; López de Haro and the survivors were allowed to go, leaving 12 knights as hostages for the payment of a great ransom.

The Castilian field army had been destroyed. Those killed included three bishops (from Avila, Segovia, and Siguenza);[SUP][5][/SUP] Count Ordoño García de Roda and his brothers; Counts Pedro Ruiz de Guzmán and Rodrigo Sánchez; the Masters of the Order of Santiago, Sancho Fernández de Lemus, and of the Portuguese Order of St. Benedict, Gonçalo Viegas. Losses for the Muslims included the death of the vizier and Abi Bakr, commander of the Bani Marin volunteers, who died of his wounds in the following year.
AftermathEditThe outcome of the battle shook the stability of the Kingdom of Castile for several years. All nearby castles surrendered or were abandoned: Malagón, Benavente, Calatrava,[SUP][8][/SUP] Caracuel, and Torre de Guadalferza, and the way to Toledo was wide open. However, Abu Yusuf Yaqub al-Mansur moved back to Seville to make good his own considerable losses; there he took the title of al-Mansur Billah ('The one victorious by God').

For the next two years, al-Mansur's forces devastated Extremadura, the Tagus valley, La Mancha and even the area around Toledo; they moved in turn against Montánchez, Trujillo, Plasencia, Talavera, Escalona and Maqueda. Some of these expeditions were led by the renegade Pedro Fernández de Castro. Most significantly, however, these raids did not lead to any territorial gains for the caliph, although Almohad diplomacy did obtain an alliance with King Alfonso IX of León (who had been enraged when the Castilian king had not waited for him before the battle of Alarcos) and the neutrality of Navarre. These alliances proved to be temporary only.

But the caliph was losing interest in the affairs of the Iberian Peninsula; he was in poor health, his objective of retaining a hold over al-Andalus appeared to be a complete success, and in 1198 he returned to Africa. He died in February 1199.

However, the success of the battle proved to be short-lived. When the Almohad caliph Muhammad al-Nasir attempted to build on it 16 years later with a new Iberian offensive, he was defeated Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa. This battle was to mark a turning-point that led to the end of Moorish rule in the Iberian Peninsula. The Almohad Empire itself collapsed a few decades later.

 

[Montuno]

(5)- I leave you now a news about an archaeological find in my area, related to two different wars separated by more than a millennium :

The tomb of a prince and 24 Iberian warrior aristocrats found in Alarcos (Ciudad Real)

Other version, more complete and interesting, of the Battle of Alarcos :

Batalla de Alarcos - Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre

es.m.wikipedia.org

 

[Montuno]

(6)- I leave you now a news about an archaeological find in my area, related to two different wars separated by more than a millennium :

The tomb of a prince and 24 Iberian warrior aristocrats found in Alarcos (Ciudad Real)

by Jose Luis Santos Fernandez
6 Aug 2019


Photo: Sepulcher of the Iberian prince found in Alarcos. CASTILLA-LA MANCHA UNIVERSITY

Overview of the Iberian Peninsula three centuries before Christ: a jumble of peoples (Celts, Celtiberians, Lusitanians, Iberians...) and two powers in a fight to the death (Rome and Carthage) just over the territory where those cultures inhabited. In 235 BC, the Carthaginian general Amílcar Barca invaded Iberia. He lays waste to the various Iberian towns that he finds in his way. Finally, they coalesce and face him in the battle of Helike (possibly Elche or Elche de la Sierra, Albacete). They kill him in 228.

Year 2018 after Christ, the archaeologists and historians María del Rosario García Huerta , Francisco Javier Morales Hervás and David Rodríguez González finish their research —after three years of excavations and two years in the laboratory— on the Iberian necropolis of Alarcos (Ciudad Real): They find 25 tombs of Iberian warrior aristocrats, including one that experts consider may correspond to a prince, excavated in the historical period in which Hamilcar died in battle.

"We do not know the specific role of these Iberians from Alarcos in the events of the time of the Second Punic War" , says David Rodríguez, professor of Prehistory at the University of Castilla-La Mancha, "but it is very tempting [although very unlikely ] imagine that they were with the Carthaginian or perhaps they fought alongside the Oretani king Orison or Orisos in Helike, a city besieged by Hamilcar to which various contingents of Oretani [Iberian people] went to liberate it from the Carthaginians. But it should not be a coincidence that most of the richest tombs in the Alarcos necropolis and assigned to warrior aristocracies are precisely from this period and later" , between the years 220 and 90 before our era.


Photo: Cerro de Alarcos. On the left, location of the Iberian site. CASTILLA-LA MANCHA UNIVERSITY

Of the 25 tombs —two of them correspond to women buried with weapons— three burials stand out for their richness, both for the quality and abundance of weapons (falcatas, shields, spears...), the evidence of having horses (horses), luxury goldsmiths (gold, silver, carnelian pendants) and for the sacrifices made after his death. One of the tombs kept 453 knucklebones (astragalus) of lamb, for which 222 animals had to be sacrificed, according to expert calculations. The bodies of the deceased were cremated and kept in vessels that the excavation has brought to light.


Another of the tombs could have belonged to a prince, since large stone blocks were used, staggered and well worked, although it was looted in ancient times for the valuable objects it contained. In the rest of the tombs, 327 objects have been found, of which 9% were made of gold. Another tomb has also been found, which is actually a cenotaph , which corresponds to a burial without a body, since the warrior would have died very far from the town and his remains could not be recovered. However, a tomb was opened for him with all the trousseau that corresponded to him as an aristocrat and warrior.


Photo: Several archaeologists work on the tombs found in Alarcos. CASTILLA-LA MANCHA UNIVERSITY

The analyzes have shown that there were notable differences between the tombs found —which have been classified into three groups: opulent, intermediate and simpler—, but all belonging to "a high status even compared to others of the same cultural scope" in different sites Iberians of the Peninsula. What draws the researchers' attention is that hardly any bodies from the "plain town" have been detected outside this necropolis. "We don't know what they did with the remains of these people, perhaps they used another type of funerary rite such as immersion, that is, they were thrown into the river or something like that. It's a mystery"Rodríguez explains, and even more so considering that the town where they lived could house more than a thousand people and the settlement lasted for almost five or six centuries.


The oppidum (hill) of Alarcos, a 33-hectare site, stands on a 100-meter-high hill and is surrounded by good natural defenses (Guadiana river), which allowed it to be an establishment suitable for a permanent habitat. "The Alarcos necropolis" , says David Rodríguez, "represents a notable qualitative leap in the knowledge of the Iberian funerary reality, by being able to present a set of tombs and materials in context that allow us to approach a better definition of the Iberian funerary ritual with more guarantees. in general and of orethane in particular".


Photo: Falcatas found in Alarcos, the feared Iberian swords. UNIVERSITY OF CASTILA-LA MANCHA


Whether these warriors killed Hamilcar will never be known for certain, but how Hamilcar died is known, according to the Roman historian Appian . "The Iberian kings [referring to the Oretano hosts of Orisos] killed him in the following way: they took carts loaded with logs to which they harnessed oxen and followed them armed with weapons. The Africans, seeing them, burst out laughing. But when they were very nearby, they set fire to the chariots and drove them against the enemy. The fire caused the confusion of the Africans. When the formation was broken, the Iberians, charging on the run, killed Hamilcar and a large number of those who were defending him " Perhaps, the prince of the tomb found in Alarcos was the one who designed the strategy.

 

[Montuno]

(7 & end)- I leave you now a news about an archaeological find in my area, related to two different wars separated by more than a millennium :

The tomb of a prince and 24 Iberian warrior aristocrats found in Alarcos (Ciudad Real)

ALARCOS, THE GREAT CHRISTIAN DEFEAT

The Iberian settlement to which the unearthed necropolis corresponds was located right where the ruins of the medieval castle of Alarcos (Poblete, Ciudad Real) now stand. The fortress is the witness of the battle between the troops of Alfonso VIII , on July 19, 1195, with the caliph Abu Yaqub al-Mansur . The Castilian defeat was complete, because the monarch did not wait for reinforcements from the rest of the Christian kings. He had to wait until 1212, in Las Navas de Tolosa , to take his revenge. On this occasion, he accepted the help of Aragon, Navarre and Frankish knights.

Source: Vicente G. Olaya | The Country , August 6, 2019[/FONT][/COLOR][/FONT]

• ​
  
  William Case of the Cobos
  
  The secrets of the Iberian aristocracy that uncovers the discovery of 25 tombs in Ciudad Real
  
  
  
  One of the 25 burial mounds found on the Alarcos hill. Castile-La Mancha University
  
  The Alarcos hill , located on the left bank of the Guadiana river, is one of the most spectacular sites in Ciudad Real . Its 22 hectares make it a key point for learning about the past, from the Bronze Age to the Muslim invasions of the Iberian Peninsula.
  
  As a result of the first investigations in 1984, archaeologists have studied the different historical periods, such as the Middle Ages or the Roman and Visigoth vestiges . Currently, the excavators have recovered an ancient Iberian city dating from the end of the 6th century BC, which allows us to discover first-hand the habits of the Oretana tribe that lived on the surface of La Mancha.
  
  That was how in 2013, a team made up of archaeologists and historians, in which names such as María del Rosario García Huerta , Francisco Javier Morales Hervás and David Rodríguez González stood out , began an investigation in the Alarcos necropolis that did not end until five years later . years later. In this way, they have found a historical jewel of 25 tombs of Iberian warrior aristocrats .
  
  Tomb number eleven. Castile-La Mancha University
  
  Burials are divided hierarchically. Interestingly, apart from the tombs of the warriors, whose ritual required the sacrifice of up to 200 animals depending on the wealth of the deceased individual, the tombs of two women stand out.
  
  Carthaginian defeat
  
  The remains found show these women buried together with various weapons , which indicates that the role of the Iberian women was not as secondary as it could be in contemporary Mediterranean civilizations.
  
  According to archaeologist David Rodríguez , in conversation with EL ESPAÑOL, the female figure in the Iberian people has always had considerable relevance. "You only have to see the offering Lady of Cerro de los Santos or the Lady of Elche" , he comments. However, he declares that to speak of equality between men and women would be "to venture too much" .
  
  The presence of these weapons does not mean that the females would have fought on the battlefield, in situ . "All the people buried here belong to the elite. When these women are buried with those weapons, it means that they belong to that social group," says Rodríguez. Therefore, they are part of that status that accompanies other men in the same funeral space.
  
  These aristocrats might have fought in the battle that ended Hamilcar Barca 's life . This Carthaginian leader had besieged the city of Helike —located on the Iberian Peninsula despite the fact that the exact location is unknown— in the year 228 BC . war.
  
  Volunteers at the necropolis. Castile-La Mancha University
  
  Although the documents are inaccurate, historians defend the idea that the Iberian soldiers managed to generate chaos among the Carthaginian ranks using bulls with flaming horns . After the brilliant strategy of the Iberians, Hamilcar's men were defeated and his leader annihilated.
  
  Now, archaeologists seek to verify if the tombs found on the Alarcos hill could belong to those Iberian warriors who faced the Carthaginian people commanded by Amílcar Barca. "We don't have written sources that can confirm that this group was there ," answers the archaeologist. However, he firmly states that "they almost certainly had to participate in the events of their time" . The key would lie in the enormous wealth of this group of 25 Iberians.
  
  To verify the hypotheses that are being considered about the historic discovery, David Rodríguez is preparing new excavations at the site for the month of September, in which he will have volunteers from the History degree of the Castilla-La Mancha University. The main mission of these new investigations will be to analyze the social structures between the different bodies found.
  
  Source: elespañol.com | August 12, 2019

https://terraeantiqvae.com/m/blogpos...gPost%3A460959

 

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View attachment 18125059 View attachment 18125060

Iberic Kingdom of Oretania

It is said that although the Turdetans inherited more of the splendid culture of Tartessos (equivalent to the Phoenician or Etruscan) between 900 and 500 BC, the Oretanos would inherit their supposedly fierce warfare earlier, (from 1300 to 900 BC).

Different Ibérics warriors (1°), Oretanian and Turdetanian warriors (3°), and Oretanians warriors:

View attachment 18125053 View attachment 18125054 View attachment 18125055 View attachment 18125056 View attachment 18125057

View attachment 18125058

.

.

.

Iberian silver patera.
Transit to the Beyond
Perotito Patera
Perotito patera. Room 11, showcase 11.19
Protohistory: Iberian peoples

This magnificent silver plate for ritual use was found by chance along with various objects also made of the same material. All of them make up the so-called "Treasure of Perotito" (Santisteban del Puerto, Jaén) and were used in banquets, religious ceremonies and other events related to priests or chiefs. The jewelry and ornaments were found fragmented and crushed. For this reason, it is assumed that they were intentionally buried as objects of monetary value, despite the high funerary significance of the patera, which is deduced from its decoration, which provides information of great importance on the beliefs of the Iberians in relation to the death and the afterlife.

The patera was made between the 3rd century and the beginning of the 1st century BC, from a sheet hammered from the back with the aim of enhancing the decoration. In the central medallion, stands out a terrifying wolf's head that, with open jaws, devours a human head, that of the deceased, who will thus be transported to the Beyond, as the Iberians believed. In contrast, scenes of little cupids hunting and of centaurs and centauresses with musical instruments and offerings for the banquet unfold around them. They allude to the blessed life that hunting, banquets, music, wine and gentle intoxication will provide the deceased in the afterlife. This conception of paradise, as well as the iconography that represents it, is of Greek origin.

 

[Montuno]

.

English and Spanish translation of the song "Ana Masr" is an Egyptian song by the legendary Mohamed Mounir that was made for the inauguration of the GoldenParade that took place on April 3, 2021; where 22 Mummies were transported from the Ancient Egyptian Museum in Tahrir Square, where they have been residing for more than a century, to the Fustat National Museum of Egyptian Civilization..

(1)- Knowing the history of Egypt.

Brief history of Ancient Egypt for beginners :

INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF EGYPT
Egypt has been inhabited since prehistory, in the historical periods known as the Predynastic Period and the Protodynastic Period , of which vessels, figures, ceremonial palettes are preserved..., but not architectural works.

During this stage, the country was divided into 3 zones: Lower Egypt (north of the country), Upper Egypt (south of the country) and Nubia / Kush (an independent kingdom located south of Egypt and north of Sudan).

The definition of Upper and Lower Egypt may sound strange, but this is because the Nile River runs from South to North, flowing into the Mediterranean , with Upper Egypt being the upper part of the river and Lower Egypt its mouth.

The history of Egypt begins in the year 3,100 BC, with the coming to power of Menes (also known as Narmer), who unified Upper and Lower Egypt, and is considered the first pharaoh. .

The ancient history of this country is framed in two eras, Ancient Egypt and the Greco-Roman Period (also called the Hellenistic Period) . Once the latter ended, with the arrival of the Middle Ages, the country converted to Islam .

The area called Ancient Egypt has varied over the centuries, but it is generally accepted that it ranged from the Nile Delta in the north to Elephantine , at the First Cataract of the Nile, in the south. It also controlled the eastern desert, the Red Sea coastline , the Sinai Peninsula , and a large western territory dominating the scattered oases . Historically, it was made up of Upper and Lower Egypt , to the south and north respectively, which preceded the creation of a unified state. In its period of greatest expansion it controlled the Amorite kingdoms of Palestine and northernSyria , reaching as far as the middle Euphrates , and the Nubian chiefdoms of the Sudan , as far as Jebel Barkal , at the fourth cataract of the Nile. It exerted an important cultural influence among neighboring peoples, and even as far afield as Cyprus , the Anatolian coast and the Hellenic Peninsula.
Egypt has a unique combination of geographic features, situated in northeastern Africa and bordered by Libya , Sudan , and the Red and Mediterranean Seas . The Nile River was the key to the success of the Egyptian civilization , since it allowed the use of resources and offered a significant advantage over other opponents: the fertile silt deposited along the banks of the Nile after the annual floods meant for Egyptians practice a less laborious form of agriculture than in other areas, freeing the population to devote more time and resources to cultural, technological and artistic development.


The Nile River, important in the history of Egypt

Sunset on the Nile, the most important river in Egypt and Africa.

The first inhabitants of Egypt settled on the banks of the Nile fleeing the desert. These first indigenous people, isolated and without close enemies, were ruled by "divine" beings who were followed by semi-heroic dynasties: "the descendants of Horus".

These inhabitants were organized into provinces (called Nomos) and with their unification two kingdoms emerged: Upper and Lower Egypt.

The two kingdoms, Upper and Lower Egypt
Lower Egypt (to the north) was made up of 20 provinces and its most important cities were Buto and Sais . It had a pharaoh of its own, its kings wore a long red crown and its divinity was the cobra.

Egypt History: Crowns Upper and Lower Egypt
different crowns of egypt

Upper Egypt, with 22 provinces, had Hierakonpolis and Nekheb as its main cities . Also with a pharaoh of their own, the crown of their kings was white and their goddess was a vulture.

Around the year 3600 a. C. arises the Gerzeense or Naqada II , which spreads throughout Egypt, unifying it culturally. This cultural consonance will lead to political unity, which will emerge after a period of struggles and alliances between clans to impose their supremacy.
To achieve greater efficiency and production, around 3500 a. C. , the first channeling works began to be carried out and writing with hieroglyphics arose in Abydos . At this time the proto-states began:
The first communities made the country habitable and organized themselves into regions called nomos . The inhabitants of the Delta had a feudal organization and came to establish two kingdoms with two chiefs or monarchs respectively. A kingdom was settled in a swampy place, which was called Kingdom of the Reed and had a reed stem as its symbol. Its capital was Buto ; they had a cobra as a totem. The other kingdom had Busiris as its capital and a vulture as its totem but its symbol was a bee and it came to be known as the Kingdom of the Bee . Both kingdoms were separated by a branch of the Nile River.
The kingdom of the Bee conquered the kingdom of the Reed so that the Delta was unified. But some of the defeated fled to settle in the area of Upper Egypt where they founded cities giving them the same name as those they had left in the Delta. That is why many cities of this time have similar names in Upper and Lower Egypt. These people prospered considerably until they organized themselves into a State.
Around 3100 BC. C. King Menes of Upper Egypt invaded Lower Egypt uniting both kingdoms . Menes became the first ruler of the First Dynasty and was described as the "unifier of both countries". With him begins the historical period and the first of the thirty dynasties that would rule Egypt until its conquest by the Persian king Artaxerxes.

The history of the Egyptian dynasties has been divided into three well-known great periods: the Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom and the New Kingdom



ANCIENT EGYPT:
Life was ordered around the development of an independent writing system and literature , as well as careful state control over natural and human resources, characterized above all by the irrigation of the fertile Nile basin and the mining of the Nile. valley and the surrounding desert regions, the organization of collective projects such as large public works, trade with the neighboring regions of East and Central Africa and with those of the Eastern Mediterraneanand, finally, by a power capable of defeating any enemy, and which maintained imperial hegemony and territorial domination of neighboring civilizations in various periods. The motivation and organization of these activities was entrusted to an elite sociopolitical and economic bureaucracy, the scribes , under the control of the Pharaoh , a semi-divine character, belonging to a succession of dynasties, who guaranteed the cooperation and unity of the Egyptian people in the context of an elaborate religious belief system .

This period of the history of Egypt is divided into several stages , in each of which several dynasties of pharaohs reigned.

Archaic period 3100–2686 BC. C. /
Dynasties I and II :

During this period there was the unification of the country and the government of pharaohs such as Menes, the first Egyptian pharaoh, whose image is represented in the famous Narmer Palette, which is in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo and represents the unification of the Ancient Egypt.

Old Kingdom 2686–2181 BC C. / Dynasties III to VI :

It is the first of the great important periods in the history of Egypt. During the Old Kingdom, the capital was established in Memphis, south of Cairo, where one of the main necropolises in the country is currently located.
At this stage, some of the main pharaohs that you will hear about during your trip ruled, and of which we can find works of art that are still preserved and can be visited:

Step Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara

Djoser:
He is also known as Dyeser and Necherjet and from his reign are preserved, among other things, the Step Pyramid of Saqqara (work of Imhotep, architect, engineer, doctor and astronomer) and a statue in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.

Khufu, Khafre and Menkaure:
We all know their names associated with the famous Pyramids of Giza , but did you know that they are three generations of the same family? Cheops was the father of Khafre, who in turn was the father of Menkaure and all three belong to the IV Dynasty.

Sphinx of Giza (representing Pharaoh Khafre) and Pyramid of Cheops

Cheops:
(whose Egyptian name is Khufu) was the one who had the Great Pyramid built .

Khafra:
(called Jefren or Jafra in Egyptian) had the median built, the best preserved today, and from his time you can see the Seated Statue of Jafra in the Cairo Museum,

a piece almost 1.70 meters high.


And Mycerinus:
(called in Egyptian Menkaura) ordered the construction of the smallest of the pyramids, and in addition to his time the famous Mycerinus Triad ,

one of the main sculptural works of the time, is also preserved in the Cairo Museum.

Pyramids of Giza: in the foreground that of Khafre and in the background that of Menkaure


This period ends with the reign of the first female pharaoh in Egyptian history, Nitocris , of whom no work of art remains today...

 

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The Hymn of Isis -
The opening song of the royal procession in ancient Egyptian language, from the hymn of the Goddess Isis and verses from the pyramid texts.
Great performance by an Egyptian orchestral ensemble.
Conductor: Nader Abbassi
Singer: Amira Selim

(2)- Knowing the history of Egypt.

Brief history of Ancient Egypt for beginners :

First Intermediate Period 2181–2055 BC C. / Dynasties VII to XI :

Ambitious irrigation projects were carried out in El Fayum , to regulate the great floods of the Nile (Caused by the great masses of water from the Mediterranean Sea evaporated in the deserts near the empire), diverting it towards Lake Moeris (El Fayum). Trade relations with surrounding regions were also strengthened: African, Asian and Mediterranean. The artistic representations were humanized, and the cult of the god Amun was imposed .

In the middle of 1800 a. C., the hyksos leadersthey defeated the Egyptian pharaohs; What began as a gradual migration of Libyans and Canaanites towards the Nile delta, eventually became a military conquest of almost the entire Egyptian territory, causing the fall of the Middle Kingdom. The Hyksos won because they had better weapons, and they knew how to use the element of surprise.

It was a time where power was decentralized and takes place between the Old Kingdom and the Middle Kingdom. It comprises from the 7th Dynasty to the middle of the 11th Dynasty, when Mentuhotep II reunified the country under his rule. Despite the decline, this period was noted for a great literary flourishing, with doctrinal or didactic texts, which show the great social change. The important change in mentality, as well as the growth of the middle classes in the cities, gave rise to a new conception of beliefs, reflected in the appearance of the so-called Coffin Texts . Osiris became the most popular divinity, with Montu and Amun . The nomes of Herakleopolisand Thebes became hegemonic, finally imposing the latter.

During this period, the country experienced a time of decline , caused in part by the depletion of resources for the construction of pharaonic temples.
But the cult of Osiris also increased and the city of Thebes became important , one of the most important for Egyptian art, where Karnak is started to build in the 11th dynasty.


Middle Kingdom 2055–1650 BC C. / Dynasties XI and XII :

Mentuhotep II. MMNY
With the coming to power of Pharaoh Mentuhotep II, the country began to experience a time of economic prosperity , in which international trade with other African and Mediterranean countries increased, and the cult of the god Amun, one of the most important to Egyptian culture.
From the artistic point of view, the representations of the pharaohs , who until now were represented more as a deity than as a human being, began to be humanized.
The main pharaohs who ruled the country during this period were Mentuhotep II (of whom the remains of his funerary temple in Deir-el-Bahari are preserved), Amenemhat I and his son Sesostris I (of whom sculptures, inscriptions and remains of some pyramid).
This period ends with the government of the second female pharaoh in the history of Egypt, Neferusobek , of whom some sculptures and reliefs are preserved.

Amenemhat III, the last great monarch of the Middle Kingdom


Second Intermediate Period 1650–1550 BC C. / Dynasties XIII to XVII :

During this stage, the Hyksos, coming from the East, dominated the country , until the Egyptian rulers who ruled in Thebes declared independence in the War of Liberation against the Hyksos.

During much of this period Egypt was dominated by the Hyksos rulers , chiefs of nomadic peoples from the periphery, especially Libyans and Asiatics, who settled in the delta, with the city of Avaris as their capital .

Hyksos - Wikipedia

en.m.wikipedia.org

Finally, the Egyptian leaders of Thebes declared independence, being called the 17th dynasty. They proclaimed the "salvation of Egypt" and led a "war of liberation" against the Hyksos. They were the thirteenth to seventeenth dynasties, partially contemporary to Hyksos power.

The conflict between Thebes and the Hyksos is known exclusively from pro-Theban sources, and it is difficult to construct a chronology.These sources propagandistically portray the conflict as a war of national liberation. This perspective was formerly taken by scholars as well but is no longer thought to be accurate.
Hostilities between the Hyksos and the Theban Seventeenth Dynasty appear to have begun during the reign of Theban king Seqenenra Taa. Seqenenra Taa's mummy shows that he was killed by several blows of an axe to the head, apparently in battle with the Hyksos. It is unclear why hostilities may have started, but the much later fragmentary New Kingdom tale The Quarrel of Apophis and Seqenenre blames the Hyksos ruler Apepi/Apophis for initiating the conflict by demanding that Seqenenra Taa remove a pool of hippopotamuses near Thebes. However, this is a satire on the Egyptian story-telling genre of the "king's novel" rather than a historical text. A contemporary inscription at Wadi el Hôl may also refer to hostilities between Seqenenra and Apepi.
Three years later, c. 1542 BC, Seqenenra Taa's successor Kamose initiated a campaign against several cities loyal to the Hyksos, the account of which is preserved on three monumental stelae set up at Karnak.
The first of the three, Carnarvon Tablet includes a complaint by Kamose about the divided and occupied state of Egypt:
"To what effect do I perceive it, my might, while a ruler is in Avaris and another in Kush, I sitting joined with an Asiatic and a Nubian, each man having his (own) portion of this Egypt, sharing the land with me. There is no passing him as far as Memphis, the water of Egypt. He has possession of Hermopolis, and no man can rest, being deprived by the levies of the Setiu. I shall engage in battle with him and I shall slit his body, for my intention is to save Egypt, striking the Asiatics."

Following a common literary device, Kamose's advisors are portrayed as trying to dissuade the king, but the king attacks anyway. He recounts his destruction of the city of Nefrusy as well as several other cities loyal to the Hyksos. On a second stele, Kamose claims to have captured Avaris, but returned to Thebes after capturing a messenger between Apepi and the king of Kush. Kamose appears to have died soon afterward (c. 1540 BC).
Ahmose I continued the war against the Hyksos, most likely conquering Memphis, Tjaru and Heliopolis early in his reign, the latter two of which are mentioned in an entry of the Rhind mathematical papyrus.Knowledge of Ahmose I's campaigns against the Hyksos mostly comes from the tomb of Ahmose, son of Ebana, who gives a first person account claiming that Ahmose I sacked Avaris:
"Then there was fighting Egypt to the south of this town [Avaris], and I carried off a man as a living captive. I went down into the water—for he was captured on the city side—and crossed the water carrying him. [...] Then Avaris was despoiled, and I brought spoil from there".

Pharaoh Ahmose I (ruled c. 1549–1524 BC) slaying a probable Hyksos. Detail of a ceremonial axe in the name of Ahmose I, treasure of Queen Ahhotep II. Inscription "Ahmose, beloved of (the War God) Montu". Luxor Museum

Thomas Schneider places the conquest in year 18 of Ahmose's reign. However, excavations of Tell El-Dab'a (Avaris) show no widespread destruction of the city, which instead seems to have been abandoned by the Hyksos. Manetho, as recorded in Josephus, states that the Hyksos were allowed to leave after concluding a treaty:
"Thoumosis ... invested the walls [of Avaris] with an army of 480,000 men, and endeavoured to reduce [the Hyksos] to submission by siege. Despairing of achieving his object, he concluded a treaty, under which [the Hyksos] were all to evacuate Egypt and go whither they would unmolested. Upon these terms no fewer than two hundred and forty thousand, entire households with their possessions, left Egypt and traversed the desert to Syria". (Contra Apion I.88-89)

Although Manetho indicates that the Hyksos population was expelled to the Levant, there is no archaeological evidence for this, and Manfred Bietak argues on the basis of archaeological finds throughout Egypt that it is likely that numerous Asiatics were resettled in other locations in Egypt as artisans and craftsmen. Many may have remained at Avaris, as pottery and scarabs with typical "Hyksos" forms continued to be produced uninterrupted throughout the Eastern Delta. Canaanite cults also continued to be worshiped at Avaris.

Following the capture of Avaris, Ahmose, son of Ebana records that Ahmose I captured Sharuhen (possibly Tell el-Ajjul), which some scholars argue was a city in Canaan under Hyksos control.

 

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(3)- Knowing the history of Egypt.

Brief history of Ancient Egypt for beginners :


New Kingdom 1550–1069 BC C. / Dynasties XVIII to XX :

In this period , the Egyptian territory extended to the East (reaching Syria) and to the South (Nubia) , and the construction of the Karnak necropolis took place, on the eastern bank of the Nile, opposite the city of Thebes.
It is a period of great foreign expansion, both in Asia —where they reach the Euphrates— and in Kush (Nubia). The 18th dynasty began with a series of warrior pharaohs, from Ahmose I to Tuthmosis III and Tuthmosis IV . Under Amenhotep III the expansion stopped and a period of internal and external peace began.

After a period of monarchical weakness, the military castes came to power, the XIX or Ramesside dynasty which, fundamentally under Seti I and Ramses II , was energetic against the expansionist Hittite kings .

During the reigns of Merenptah , successor of Ramses II , and Ramses III , of the 20th dynasty , Egypt had to face invasions from the peoples of the sea , originally from various areas of the eastern Mediterranean ( Aegean , Anatolia ), and from the Libyans .

At this stage some of the most important pharaohs in the history of Egypt ruled. Of most of them important monuments are :

Hatshepsut
She was regent for her nephew and stepson Tutmosis III (son of her brother and husband Tutmosis II), who inherited the throne as a minor.
As regent, she planned a coup d'état that finally brought her to power, becoming the third pharaoh-queen in the history of Egypt , endorsed by the priests and coming to be represented in reliefs being crowned by the god Amun (one of these reliefs can be seen on an obelisk at Karnak Temple). Despite having the support of the priests, the Egyptian people had a hard time accepting Hatshepsut as their queen.
Surely on your trip you will visit the well-known Temple of Hatshepsut in Deir-el-Bahari.

Hatshepsut, queen of Egypt history
Temple of Hatshepsut in Deir-el-Bahari

Thutmose III
He was one of the most important pharaohs in the history of Egypt and succeeded his aunt and stepmother Hatshepsut in power. With him, the Egyptian territory extended to the East and the conquests of it are represented in reliefs on the obelisks of Karnak.
During his reign, he had several obelisks built for the extension of this temple, 4 of which are currently in Rome , London , Istanbul and New York , and his tomb is one of those preserved in the Valley of the Kings .

The Colossi of Memnon, in Luxor, representing Pharaoh Amenophis III, father of Akhenaten

Amenophis IV
He had his name changed to Akhenaten and his reign is known as the Amarna Period , a time of change in Egyptian society, from a polytheistic cult to the worship of a single god, Aten (represented as a sun).
Akhenaten was the high priest of Aton on earth and with him the artistic canons of the time changed. Representations of people went from being hieratic (the image we have in mind of an Egyptian relief) to being more naturalistic (for example the famous Bust of Nefertiti, his official wife , which is in the Neues Museum in Berlin ) . .

In general, the representations at this time show people in a much more real way , and we can find elongated heads, thick lips, slanted eyes…, as well as scenes from the daily life of the pharaoh, something that had never been represented before.

Tutankhamun
He was the son and successor of Akhenaten. During his reign, he restored the cult of the god Amun and the rest of the gods and restored some temples that had been abandoned during the reign of his father.
However, artistically, he maintained the way of representing people , with elongated heads, in everyday scenes, etc., mixing little by little with the traditional form of representation in Egyptian art.
His reign was short and he died very young, being buried in the Valley of the Kings . His tomb is the most visited in the complex and was discovered in 1922 by Howard Carter, almost intact, which was a very important advance in the study of Egyptian history and culture.

Along with his body, the funerary mask, jewelry, furniture and utensils were preserved in perfect condition ,

which are currently in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.

Valley of the Kings, near Luxor,

where numerous pharaohs of the 18th, 19th and 20th Dynasties are buried

Ramses II
Before becoming pharaoh, Ramses II was a soldier and made several expeditions both in Africa and Asia. He was one of the most important and long-lived pharaohs and, during his reign, Egypt experienced a time of splendor and economic prosperity , moving the capital to Memphis and later settling in Pi-Ramesses, in the Nile Delta.
With Ramses II numerous temples were built in Egypt, the Osireion in the Temple of Abydos, the hypostyle hall of the Temple of Amun in Karnak, the Ramesseum, in the Valley of the Kings and, above all, the famous temples of Abu Simbel, in Nubian .
Although he had several wives, his favorite was Nefertari, who was considered the Great Royal Wife . To her he dedicated one of the temples of Abu Simbel, with a statue the same size as that of the goddess Hathor and almost the same as his own in her own temple, something that had never been done before in Egyptian art.

Temple of Ramses II in Abu Simbel, with the 4 colossi that represent the pharaoh

 

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Small amulets were common in Ancient Egypt. Worn for good luck or to ward off evil or often buried with the dead for the afterlife. Faience – a method of blue or green glazing – was using for both fine art as well as for mass-produced amulets. This one looks like it originally had a ring on top for a string. The yellow is surface corrosion. No provenance but probably late period.

 

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(4)- Knowing the history of Egypt.

Brief history of Ancient Egypt for beginners :


Third Intermediate Period 1069–664 BC C. / Dynasties XXI to XXIV
Egypt's wealth had become a tempting target for invasion; in particular, for the Western Bedouin Libyans and Sea Peoples , who were part of the powerful confederation of Greek pirates in the Aegean Sea . Initially, the army was able to repel the invasions, but Egypt eventually lost control of its territories in southern Syria and Palestine, much of which fell to the Assyrians and Hittites. The impact of external threats was compounded by internal problems such as corruption, theft from royal tombs, and popular unrest. After regaining his power, the high priests of the temple of Amunin Thebes they had accumulated vast extensions of land and much wealth, weakening the State. The country ended up divided, beginning the Third Intermediate Period .

During this period, the country was divided between dynasties of Libyan origin, which ruled Lower Egypt (north of the country) and Egyptian dynasties that ruled the area of Thebes as High Priests of Amun, the highest authority of the clergy in the country and representatives of the god Amun.

Late Period 664–332 BC C. / Dynasties XXV to XXXI
In the Late Period, the country was ruled by dynasties of Nubian origin, Egyptian dynasties , went through 2 periods of Persian rule (Persia: present-day Iran), in addition to suffering invasion attempts by the Assyrians (a people from the Middle East who comprises territories between Syria, Lebanon, Turkey, Iraq to Iran).

Nubian pharaohs ruled Egypt for more than 70 years , and the 25th dynasty is known as the Kushite Dynasty.

This period, also known as the Late Period, ends in the 7th century BC, with the conquest of Egypt by Alexander the Great , who seized power from the Persians.

Exterior view of the Luxor Temple, consecrated to Amun-Ra

Apries (Greek: Ἁπρίης), the name by which Herodotus and Diodorus refer to Wahibre Haaibre , pharaoh of Egypt (589 BC – 570 BC), the fourth king (counting from Psammetichus I) of the 26th Dynasty of Egypt .